The feasibility, potential advantages and challenges of establishing a new satellite launch facility in Sri Lanka are presented in this work. With recent progress in space technology such as the development of reusable launch vehicles, new small-lift launchers, advanced propulsion technologies and the emergence of private space companies, all sectors of space industry are growing rapidly. Despite being a developing country with limited financial capabilities and a relatively small presence in global space industry, the small South-Asian island nation’s geographical location presents a unique opportunity. Sri Lanka’s strategic position in the Indian Ocean is ideal to harvest financial and technological benefits that stem from establishing a new satellite launch facility. The design and operating mechanism of the best launch facility feasible for Sri Lanka is discussed along with appropriate types of launch vehicles, target orbits and payload capabilities. Natural geography of the island presents unique advantages as a space port. These advantages; its equatorial location, the close proximity to ocean, wind pattern and climate are discussed in detail. Financial and technological benefits associated with establishing a new launch facility are analyzed in depth while identifying possible financial challenges and hurdles. These benefits and risks are compared and discussed to optimize the feasibility of the project. Geopolitical and environmental challenges that are unique to Sri Lanka due to its geographical location and sensitive ecosystems are also investigated in this project. Possible solutions to these obstacles are presented and discussed in detail with the emphasis on leading the country towards becoming a spacefaring nation.
Keywords: Sri Lanka, space industry, launch facility, launch market, geographical advantages, geopolitics, environmental impacts.
Introduction
A Brief History of Satellite Launches, Evolution and Current Trends.
The history of satellite launches is fascinating. It began on October 4, 1957, when the former Soviet Union launched the world’s first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1. This event marked the dawn of a new era in the space age and sparked a fierce competition in the space race with the United States. In response to the Soviet challenge, in 1958, the United States launched Explorer 1, their first satellite (Sellers, 2005). As the competition continued into the coming decades, the space technology benefited from a rapid and a steady expansion with the development of increasingly advanced, sophisticated and reliable space crafts and launch vehicles. While early satellites and launches mainly served as testing grounds for the newly evolving satellite industry, the 1960s witnessed the dawn of commercial satellite ventures. The United States launched Telstar 1 in 1962, the first active telecommunication satellite in the world and humanity began to identify the power of space based communication (Telstar 1, n.d.). In the subsequent years, more and more applications of earth orbiting satellites such as weather monitoring, geological surveying, navigation and reconnaissance came to existence and satellite technology became an essential tool for the progress of society. The introduction of Landsat constellation in 1970s to monitor the earth’s geological aspects and the birth of GPS constellation in 1990s to assist global navigation are some of the landmark achievements of the satellite industry (History of satellites – timeline, n.d.).
Launches from Nations Beyond The US and The Soviet Union
Although the early space industry (and its subsets such as the satellite launch market) was exclusively in the hands of the US and the Soviet Union. Several other nations around the globe also started venturing to space, mainly from 1970s. Ten European countries, Belgium, Germany, Denmark, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland and Spain with the backing of NASA joined together as founding members to form European Space Agency (ESA) in 1975 (History of Europe in space, n.d.). China entered the space race in 1970s and moved on to become another global leader in space with establishment of the China National Space Administration (CNSA) in 1993. India also became a spacefaring nation with the initiation of country’s own space agency, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) in the late 1960s. Another notable contributor to the global space industry is Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), the national space agency of Japan (Worldwide Space Agencies, n.d.).
Government Vs Private Sector Launches
It is worth mentioning that, from the world’s first satellite launch in 1957 to the beginning of the 21st century, satellite launch industry around the globe was mainly controlled by spacefaring governments or government-affiliated space agencies such as NASA or ESA. However, this trend has changed drastically, especially during the past decade as the arrival of private space enterprises into the satellite launch industry. US private companies such as Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (known as SpaceX) and Blue Origin are becoming leaders in the commercial satellite launch market offering more affordable launch options through innovative launch vehicle designs (Nelson, 2024).
The Commercial Satellite Launch Industry
Today the satellite industry is a rapidly growing enterprise. While there are many components that comprise this complex industry, some of the main segments are the satellite production, launch vehicles and launch facilities, and post launch operations. Based on the purpose or the ownership, satellites can be divided into few main categories such as military (spy satellites or satellites dedicated to military communications), satellites for research or governmental purposes (ex: Landsat constellation, James Webb), or satellites for commercial purposes (ex: Iridium and Starlink constellations).
Satellite launch is also an equally important aspect of the industry. Once dominated by spacefaring nations and few government organizations such as NASA and ESA, the launch industry today is undergoing a rapid growth since its commercialization in the 21st century.
Private Launch Companies
founded in 2002, The space industry giant SpaceX, revolutionized the traditional space launch industry and is undoubtedly the pioneer in commercializing the satellite launch sector. SpaceX introduced and championed the reusable rocket technology which paved the way to more affordable, more frequent satellite launches which ultimately led the way to the commercialization of the satellite launch market. Prior to that, the launch industry depended on expendable rockets or boosters and that kept the cost of launch substantially high. Launch costs were beyond the reach for many and was a luxury only government agencies and wealthy tech companies could afford (Thompson, 2023).
In traditional launch systems, rocket boosters and early stages were mostly designed for single use. Once all the fuel exhausted, the empty boosters were typically parachuted to ocean only limited components were reused or refurbished. Most of the discarded pieces were recovered mainly to prevent polluting the ocean and marine life (Pultarova, 2021).
Marking a turning point in launch industry, SpaceX demonstrated the successful landing and recovery of the first stage of a rocket in December 2015. The landed first stage was refurbished and was successfully used in a second launch in March 2017, proving the concept of reusability of rockets (Henry, 2017). The boosters typically use a combination of a powered descent landing system and parachutes for the reentry and a floating landing platform.
In 2023, SpaceX set a new record by reusing a first stage of a rocket for the most number of times. Falcon-9 the workhorse of the company was successfully launched for the 16th time, essentially doubling the initial goals of the company (Clark, 2023).
The introduction of reusable first stages made a huge impact on space launch industry by greatly reducing the cost associated with launches. In general, the upfront cost associated with production of launch vehicles are significantly high. Reusing a launch vehicle, even just the first state can considerably lower these expenses. SpaceX is passing on some of these monetary advantages directly to their clients and this makes them a competitive alternate to traditional, more expensive launch industry business model. Also, the time it takes to refurbish a prepare a reusable booster for the next launch is significantly less than building a new booster. Therefore, reusability has paved the way for more frequent launch schedules that were not possible a few years ago (Pereira, 2023). Following the footsteps of SpaceX, there are several other private enterprises (ex: Blue Origin, Rocket Lab, Firefly) have begun offering commercial launch services.
Business Model
With the arrival of private companies, the space launch industry’s business model has undergone significant changes. Reusable rocket stages, more frequent launch opportunities, more efficient propulsion systems, ride-share options are some of the key strategies utilized in today’s launch industry to make it more affordable to the user. Offering a diversified range of launch services such a launching commercial satellites, resupply missions to International Space Station (ISS) and the newest addition to the commercial space flights; space tourism, is another key feature of the business strategy. As a result of these innovative approaches, more and more users are getting attracted to commercial launch services for their launch requirements (Patschke, 2023).
Launch Market
Commercial launch industry is steadily expanding and some of the reasons behind this growth are the introduction of innovative, efficient and cost effective launch technologies and also the competitive business practices implemented by private launch companies.
Earth orbiting satellites are one of the most common type of payloads being launched from the USA and other facilities around the world. Communication satellites for applications such as global phone and internet connections, satellite tv and radio services, Earth observation satellites for applications such as weather monitoring, geological and environmental applications, and satellites for various research applications such as astronomy, planetary and solar explorations are some of the categories of satellites that are commonly launched by commercial launch providers.
Launch Market Revenues
As the launch industry in the US and around the world is growing, the market revenues also growing simultaneously. With the cost of launch becoming more and more affordable, the demand for commercial launches is steadily increasing. Recent studies conducted by several leading financial analysis institutions support this claim and agree to a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) between 10% to 15% for the coming years (Space Launch Services Market , 2023).
According to the analysis firm Fortune Business Insight, “The global space launch services market size was valued at $8.07 billion in 2022 and is projected to grow from $9.15 billion in 2023 to $20.54 billion by 2030, exhibiting a CAGR of 12.2% during the forecast period (Space Launch Service Market, 2023; Small Satellite Market, 2023).
Note. The global space launch services market size was accounted for at USD 14.53 billion in 2022 and is projected to reach around USD 50.29 billion by 2032, growing at a CAGR of 13.22% during the forecast period from 2023 to 2032. This is an indication that the number of satellite launches per year also on the rise for the next ten years, increasing the demand for more launch facilities. From Space Launch Services Market by Precedence Research, 2023. (https://www.precedenceresearch.com/space-launch-services-market)
Another financial analysis firm, Markets & Markets predicts an even more aggressive growth in the global space launch industry by the year 2027. According to their recent market research report, the space launch services market size is projected to reach USD 29.6 billion by 2027, at a CAGR of 15.1% during the forecast period. It is worth noting that, according to this market study, the largest contributor to this growth is coming from the ‘Small Lift Launch Segment’ of space launch services. This particular segment comprises of launch vehicles with under 350,000 kg lift capacity, which mainly cater to the users (or clients) of commercial telecommunication, research, Earth and weather monitoring satellites. With a predicted CAGR of 14.6%, the expected market value of the small lift launch Segment is USD 19.6 billion by the year 2027 which is roughly 66% of the total space launch market (Small Satellite Market, 2023).
As shown in figure 3 and also in the information presented, it clearly indicates a strong growth in the global space launch industry in the next decade. While the significant drop in launch cost is a primary reason behind this positive trend, other factors such as increased demand for global connectivity and technical advancements in the space industry also play key roles. An increasing number of countries are actively developing their own space programs, aiming to bolster their economies and enhance national pride.
As of the year 2022, the highest share by payload type in the space launch services market belongs to satellite services (see figure 4). This 46% of market share comprises of categories such as communication, Earth observations and research satellites with the highest contribution coming from communication satellites (Space Launch Services Market, 2023).
Note. Within the already growing space launch services sector, the highest market share belongs to satellite launches, which is almost half the total market size. The satellite launch sector is predicted to have the fastest CAGR among all other services from 2023 to 2032. From the Space Launch Services Market by Precedence Research, 2023. (https://www.precedenceresearch.com/space-launch-services-market)
The global spread of the satellite launch market is also an important factor to understand its current and future trends. As explained above, the space launch market is predicted to expand over the coming years with the biggest stakeholder being satellite launches. Figure 5 shows the current and future trend of the global spread of the market size according to regions.
Note. The space launch services market size is predicted to increase steadily with North America maintaining the largest share during predicted period of time. It is important to note that the market share of the Asia-Pacific region is also expected to increase in the near future. From the Space Launch Services Market by Polaris Market Research, 2023 (https://www.polarismarketresearch.com/industry-analysis/space-launch-services-market)
While the global space launch services market is expected to grow at an average CAGR ranging between 12.2% to 15.1% for the forecast period of 2023 to 2032 (Small Satellite Market, 2023; Space Launch Services Market , 2023), it is interesting to note that the Asia-Pacific region is predicted to expand at an even higher rate. According to analytics firm Mordor Intelligence, the Asia-Pacific satellite launch vehicle market size is estimated at USD 1.94 billion in 2024, and is expected to reach USD 5.13 billion by 2029, growing at a CAGR of 21.47% during the forecast period 2024-2029 (Satellite Launch Vehicle Market Size & Share Analysis, n.d.).
In summary, it is evident that the space launch industry is in high demand and is expected to grow in the next decade, and maybe even continue to grow beyond that for the decades to come. Within the launch industry, the communication satellites to low-earth orbits and the anticipated rapid growth in the Asia-Pacific region’s market are the key factors to focus on. For nations new to the space industry, this presents an encouraging opportunity to enter the space market.
Below is a summary of the main points of this discussion.
Space Launch Market; Key Points:
Sri Lanka and The Global Space Industry; A Comparison
Sri Lanka’s Technological Capabilities
Sri Lanka is a tropical island nation in the Indian ocean, located south of the Indian subcontinent, separated by the narrow Palk Strait. The total land area of Sri Lanka is about 65,610 km2 and shares maritime borders with India to the northwest and Maldives to the southwest. The island lies between latitudes 5.000 N and 10.000 N and longitudes 80.000 E and 82.000 E. (Maps of Sri Lanka, n.d.)
Although Sri Lanka’s presence in space explorations is relatively modest, the country’s unique geographical location and its growing commitment in the field position it to capitalize on current trends in the global space industry.
When studying the feasibility of implementing a satellite launch facility in Sri Lanka, it is crucial to consider the academic and technological capabilities and requirements of the country. A satellite launch facility serves as a nexus connecting various scientific and technological domains and offers research and vocational opportunities in a diverse range of disciplines.
There are 17, leading public universities in the country that are actively involved in cutting-edge scientific research and several of them; University of Colombo, University of Peradeniya and University of Moratuwa have ongoing research programs related to space technology. In addition to the above mentioned public universities there are many research institutes spread across the country conducting studies in various scientific disciplines including satellite-based communication, weather sciences, aerospace and aeronautical engineering (Universities, n.d.).
Among all the universities and research institutes in Sri Lanka, one that stands out with most technological capabilities, experience and resources to venture into a satellite launch facility will be the Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies (ACCIMT); a research institute affiliated with the university of Moratuwa. ACCIMT was named after the renowned science fiction writer and futurist, and an honorary citizen of Sri Lanka, Sir Arthur C. Clarke, who championed the concept of geostationary satellites for global communication, in 1950s (Arthur C Clarke’s Legacy, n.d.).
Sri Lanka’s Achievements in Space Sector
In 2019, a group of scientists from ACCIMT developed Sri Lanka’s first active satellite, Raavana-1. This cube-sat, equipped with several imaging devices, measuring about 10cm each side and weighing about 1kg, marked Sri Lanka’s entry to space age. In April 2019, Raavana-1 was transported to the International Space Station onboard Cygnus NG-11 mission and was successfully deployed in June 2019 (Raavana-1 1U Cube Satellite Project, n.d.).
Financial Capabilities
In 2016, Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), signifying its willingness and commitment to participate in global space activities (Member States and Observer Organizations, n.d.). Also, after ending its 30-year civil war in 2009, Sri Lankan government has shown a steadily increasing commitment to country’s science and technology budget. Most notably the year 2021 and year 2024 budgets had special allocations to investigate future directions and potentials in space technology applicable to Sri Lanka (Jayasinghe, 2023).
Note. Raavana – 1 is a small cubeSat sized satellite developed by a group of Sri Lankan and Japanese scientists with the help of Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan. Raavana -1 is the first satellite by Sri Lanka and marked country’s entrance to the space industry. From Raavana-1 1U Cube Satellite Project by ACCIMT. (https://www.accimt.ac.lk/?p=8266)
Geographical Advantages
Sri Lanka’s unique geographical location makes the country an ideal candidate for a space launch facility mainly due to country’s close proximity to the equator and having an open ocean to the east and south. These geographical advantages are discussed below, in detail.
Advantages Due to Earth’s Rotation
The linear or tangential velocity of an object in rotational motion increases with its distance from the rotating axis (Giancoli, 2008). Therefore, at the surface of the earth, the tangential velocity is highest at the equator. As the earth rotates in an eastward direction, any object projected from the earth carries this additional velocity vector pointing to the east. This additional velocity can be used to create more energy-efficient, low-cost trajectories for space launches and this unique advantage is maximized when launched from the equator (Sellers, 2005).
Note. Rotational velocity of an object increases proportional to the radius of rotation and the velocity is highest when you furthest away from the rotating axis. Therefore, equatorial countries such as Sri Lanka have the highest rotational velocities. From Faster than the sound? Our velocity due to Earth's rotation by Science & Engineering. (https://sciengsustainability.blogspot.com/2013/04/faster-than-sound-our-velocity-due-to.html)
Advantage for Geostationary Satellites
Another benefit of equatorial launch is that it provides a more efficient trajectory to achieve a geostationary orbit. These orbits are a special class of circular orbits sitting directly above the Earth’s equator with a 00 inclination, and at an altitude of 35,786km. Geostationary satellites utilize these orbits to traverse the Earth while maintaining the same rotational speed as the Earth. Therefore, when viewed from Earth, these satellites appear to stay at the same fixed location above the Earth’s surface and are widely used in sectors such as telecommunication and satellite TV. Reaching a geostationary orbit is more energy-efficient when launched from an equatorial (or near equatorial) location since it gives a more direct ascent to the orbit while minimizing energy-consuming orbital maneuvers (Sellers, 2005).
Changes in Gravitational Attraction
The equatorial positioning of Sri Lanka offers another unique, but relatively less significant advantage, in terms of the gravitational attraction. Every object on Earth is subjected to an attractive force towards the center of the Earth, which is the gravitational attraction between any two masses. This attractive force results in gravitational acceleration, or gravity (Giancoli, 2008). Although the standard value for gravity at the surface of Earth is 9.81m/s2, this number slightly increases with the latitude and the lowest gravity is generally found on equatorial regions. The correlation between latitude and gravity stems from the Earth's rotation, a concept explained through centripetal force, which falls outside the scope of this discussion.
Another factor responsible for changes in gravity is the slightly uneven distribution of mass under the Earth’s surface where lesser mass concentrations results in slightly less gravity and vice versa (Giancoli, 2008). Intriguingly, a very precise, recent geological survey conducted by NASA (Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment, or GRACE) identified the ocean area just south of Sri Lanka as one of the lowest gravitational regions on Earth with a value of 9.75m/s2. Although this deviation is relatively small compared to the global average, its potential impact on space launches warrants further investigation (Gravity Anomaly Maps and The Geoid, 2004; Pal & Ghosh, 2023).
Close Proximity to The Ocean
Sri Lanka is encompassed by the Indian ocean. Beyond coastal borders of Sri Lanka except to the north, there are no human habitats for thousands of miles. This vast expanse of open ocean in close proximity offers several advantages to a prospective satellite launch facility.
To leverage the maximum benefit from Earth’s rotation, equatorial launches are typically aimed to the east. Having a less populated area (preferably a large body of water) to the east of launch pad is generally preferred for safety reasons. In the event of a malfunction or an accident during the early stages of the flight, the launch vehicle or debris can safely fall in to the ocean, considerably reducing the danger to populations (Sellers, 2005).
Many launch vehicles have multiple stages such as boosters that need to be discarded after they have exhausted their fuel. Some of the modern launch vehicles are designed with reusable boosters which needs safe landing options near to the launch site. The presence of an ocean nearby facilitates easier recovery operations for both reusable stages and discarded components.
Logistical Advantages
Access to Air and Seaports
Transportation of payloads to the launch site is another crucial factor to consider when designing a satellite launch facility. Alongside land routes, payloads are often transported via air and sea routes, with considerations including cost, size, and weight of the payload. Given the focus of this study on the feasibility of establishing a satellite launch facility in the eastern or southeastern coastal areas of Sri Lanka, it is imperative to address transportation logistics specific to that part of the country.
Eastern and southeastern coastlines of Sri Lanka boast several seaports (harbors) and an international airport (Maththala international Airport) located near the southern coast. Hambanthota is a coastal city in Sri Lanka, located in the southern province, in the district of Hambanthota. Both Maththala international airport and the Hambanthota harbor are situated near the city limits and are conveniently accessed by both highways and railways.
Trincomalee harbor situated on the east coast of Sri Lanka near the city of Trincomalee, and it is one of the largest natural seaports in the world. This harbor has facilities to cater any major commercial sea vessels and also well-connected to the other parts of the country by the highway and railway networks (Joshi, 2022).
Facility Design
Possible Sites for The Launch Facility
Based on geographical advantages outlined above, the eastern and southeastern coastal areas emerge as the most favorable locations in Sri Lanka for the implementation of a satellite launch facility. Key factors such as their close proximity to the equator, adjacency to an open ocean towards the east, and convenient access to air and seaports significantly influence the choice of location for such a facility.
Hambanthota as A Possible Location
After a detailed analysis on geographical, logistical and other advantages, the coastal areas near southern city of Hambanthota are proposed as the optimal location in Sri Lanka for the development of a future satellite launch facility.
Hambanthota, situated in the district of the same name, lies near the southern tip of Sri Lanka. It’s geographical coordinates; latitude is 6.12° N and longitude is 81.12° E, and it is one of the closest cities to the equator. The area is well-connected for logistical purposes via the nearby airport, the harbor, the highway and railway network. The coastal area near Hambanthota is mostly flat terrain free from any mountains, which is another advantage when building a launch facility. The area is known to be safe in terms of geological safety and is free from hazards such as landslides, earthquakes, volcanic activities and forest fires (Maps of Sri Lanka, n.d.).
Another important factor to consider when deciding on a suitable location for a launch facility is the population density of the area. Even with modern safety measures, workplaces are not completely free from accidents and some industries could be more prone to accidents than others. In particular, for a launch facility, even with the highest safety protocols and practices in place, accidents can occur, especially due to hazardous and explosive substances that are frequently used. Therefore, implementing a launch facility in a less populated area is beneficial to minimize potential damages in case of an accident such as an explosion or a leakage of harmful substances.
The population density of Hambanthota district is relatively low compared to many other major districts in Sri Lanka. According to a 2017 survey, the population density of Colombo district and Gampaha districts is 3621/km2 and 1802/km2 respectively while Hambanthota district scored a significantly low population density of 265/km2 (Population and Housing, 2017).
Additionally, the Hambanthota district is in the dry zone of Sri Lanka with one of the lowest yearly rainfalls compared to the rest of the country (The average annual rainfall in Hambantota is around 900-1,200 millimeters while the average rainfall for Sri Lanka is 2500 – 3000 millimeters). It also has a calm, dry climate year-around, ideal for a launch facility (Climate in Hambantota, n.d.).
Note. The Hambanthota coastline faces the southeastern Indian Ocean. Although these coastal areas are well-connected by the highways and railway system and in close proximity to an international airport and a harbor, they are relatively less populated. From Google maps. (https://www.google.com/maps/@6.150366,81.1640402,5750m/data=!3m1!1e3?entry=ttu)
Trincomalee as A Second Option
While Hambanthota stands out as the prime candidate for a future satellite launch facility in Sri Lanka, the coastal areas near the city of Trincomalee emerge as a viable secondary option. Trincomalee harbor, along with the highway and railway systems provides efficient connectivity between the Trincomalee coastal areas and the rest of the country making it a strong contender for the project. Similar to Hambanthota, Trincomalee also has the advantage of having a relatively low population density of 168/km2 (Population and Housing, 2017). Moreover, the coastal terrain of Trincomalee is predominantly flat and devoid of natural disasters such as seismic activities and forest fires, further enhancing its suitability for the proposed facility.
A Comparison Between Hambanthota and Trincomalee
Both Hambanthota and Trincomalee coastal areas present many similar advantages such as having an open ocean to the east, easy access to harbors, efficient connectivity via road and railway routes, low population densities and favorable geological conditions. However, Hambanthota has further advantages by being closer to the equator and also having better access to an international airport.
Geopolitical Concerns
Another important aspect to consider is the geopolitical landscape of the region. Throughout the past, the South Asian region has been marked by complex relationships among its nations, characterized by trade competitions, border disputes, and even armed conflicts (Mishra, 2016). However, it is important to note that, despite these complications, this region has been a significant contributor to the regional and international trade throughout the history. Today Southeast Asia is a thriving economy and is becoming an important factor in the global space industry.
Considering the proposed southern coastal location for the prospective space launch facility, there are several countries in south and east Asian region that could have geopolitical interests and concerns. As Sri Lanka’s nearest neighbor and the regional superpower in terms of economy, technological and military aspects, India undoubtedly will have the highest and most significant geopolitical concerns over such venture. While being one of Sri Lanka’s closest ally over economic, social and cultural relationships, India is extremely sensitive when it comes to security and political issues concerning Sri Lanka. in addition to India, the other regional countries that are mostly sensitive to Sri Lankan geopolitics are Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Maldives, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and China. These countries have various ties with Sri Lanka via either trade, financial or military agreements or due to their relative geographical location (Jochheim, 2023).
Implementing a new space launch facility can create geopolitical concerns over several areas. Some of the major considerations include security concerns, strategic competitions and trade competitions.
Security Concerns and Regional Tensions
A space launch facility can become a security concerns to the neighboring countries for many reasons. Especially for spacefaring countries, the space dominance is an important factor. Space launch facilities can be used to launch satellites for commercial and other civilian applications as well as for military applications such as reconnaissance and military communications.
Even a launch facility originally intended for commercial usage can attract military interests over time which can be a concern for neighboring governments. Being a smaller economy, powerful foreign governments can influence Sri Lanka relatively easily and may attempt to use the launch facility for their military interests. Even within the South Asian region, the decades long rivalry between India and Pakistan is a factor to be considered in detail, although they both are close allies with Sri Lanka. Both are nuclear-armed states with strong military capabilities (India ranks 4th in the world in terms of military strength while Pakistan is at 9th place) and have been engaged in a cold-war for years for space dominance (Baker & Spirlet, 2023). It is natural for India to raise concerns over Pakistan’s ability to gain access to space over the Indian Ocean via a future launch facility in Sri Lanka.
In the same way India can raise a legitimate concern over the future, increased presence from China in the Indian ocean. Both countries are competing with each other for the economic, technological and military superiority in Asia and engage in occasional political and border disputes (Markey & Scobell, 2023). It is possible for China, with its already strong economic and cultural ties with Sri Lanka, to express interests using a space port in Sri Lanka. China is already actively engaged in a geopolitical venture to enhance its presence in the South and Eastern Asian regions (as a part of its ‘Belt and Road Initiative’), and a launch facility in Sri Lanka may undoubtedly pique Chinese interest (McBride & Berman, 2023). At the same time, it is fair to acknowledge the concerns of India’s rivals, such as China and Pakistan, that a space launch facility in Sri Lanka is an additional opportunity for India to expand its dominance over regional skies.
Note. As the regional super power, India closely monitors all activities in the Indian Ocean, especially in the Bay of Bengal. Their rival, China also has a great interest in the region due to the Maritime Silk Road (the Road and Belt Initiative). From The Belt and Road Initiative by MERICS, n.d. (https://merics.org/sites/default/files/2020-06/Silkroad-Projekt_EN_2020_150dpi.png)
Technical Challenges Due to Close Proximity to Other Launch Facilities
Another potential concern would be the challenges that arise if the proposed launch facility is in close proximity to facilities of neighboring countries, specifically with nearby Indian launch sites. If multiple launch facilities are in close proximity, electronic signal interferences can occur if communication channel frequencies are not adequately separated. These can lead to loss of communications, data losses, and possibly accidents.
Also, scheduling complexities and launch window congestions are a possibility, if the launch sites are in close proximity. There are many factors involved in determining a launch window which include the target orbit and coordinates of the launch site, the payload and environmental conditions such as wind speed. If launch facilities catering to similar user markets are situated nearby, the aforementioned factors can cause launch windows to overlap, potentially resulting in scheduling conflicts.
Another advantage of building a space launch facility in Sri Lanka is that there are no other similar launch facilities in the close proximity of the proposed primary location, Hambanthota (or the second choice, Trincomalee). The main operational launch site in India, the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), is located in Sriharikota, in the state of Andhra Pradesh in south India. SDSC is situated at a latitude higher than that of Hambanthota (13.7N), approximately 900 km to the north of Hambanthota when measured along a straight line. The other, closer operational launch site is Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS), located in Thumba, Kerala (at latitude 8.53N and longitude 76.8E). While TERLS serves as an equatorial launch facility, the linear distance between TERLS and Hambanthota (or Trincomalee) well over 500 km. Additionally, TERLS primarily facilitates satellite launches geared towards scientific and research-oriented missions (Launch Services, n.d.).
Kulasekharapatnam Spaceport is India’s third and the newest space launch site which is still in the planning stage and construction of the facility is supposed to start in the near future. The proposed site for the spaceport is located in the southern state of Thamilnadu, about 480 km from Hambanthota (and about 360 km from Trincomalee) when measured in a straight line. Nevertheless, it is important to note that the proposed launches from Kulasekharapatnam are limited to polar orbits and will be following trajectories due southward to avoid travailing over Sri Lanka’s landmass (Loughran, 2024).
Beyond India, there are no other launch facilities in the region near the equator or in a relatively close distance from Sri Lanka. The two facilities in Pakistan; the Sonmiani Flight Test Range located west of Karachi (coordinates 25.1N, 66.4E) is over 1500miles from Hambanthota. Similarly the Mashhood Test Firing Range (MTFR) at Tilla Jogian (coordinates 33.4N, 73.3E) is over 2000 miles away (Khan, 2023). The other nearest facility, LAPAN Rocket Launching Station in Indonesia is over 2000 miles from Hambanthota. Therefore, it can be inferred that the technical challenges arising from the geographical location of the proposed site will be minimal and manageable (Förster, 2023).
Managing Rocket Launch Debris: Safety Measures and Environmental Considerations
Another important factor to consider is managing rocket launch debris. Typically, the launching of a rocket generates various types of debris that fall back to Earth, either to the land or ocean. The types and amount of debris vary depending on many factors including the number of stages of the rocket, type of the launch vehicle and the trajectory of the spacecraft.
Some of the common types of debris that generally fall back to Earth include rocket stages and boosters, payload fairings, payload adaptors and auxiliary components such as thruster covers. As mentioned before, depending on many factors such as the type of the launch vehicle and the mission’s trajectory, the size and amount of debris falling back to Earth may vary from small fragments to large, intact structures. Components that were jettisoned at higher altitudes tend to either completely burn out during reentry or broken into lass harmful smaller fragments however, occasionally larger pieces measuring tens of meters can reach Earth, intact (Sellers, 2005).
Launch debris can cause damage in many ways. The immediate danger is the falling of debris over populated landmasses or over busy maritime areas and causing damage to human life and property. A secondary yet a significant issue is the environmental contamination that can cause due to chemicals. Especially when debris fall over large water bodies such as oceans, recovery and mitigation could be challenging and harmful chemicals can leach into the environment. However, there are many effective safety protocols in place to counter these situations, and adhering to those measures greatly help minimizing and mitigating these hazards (Tingley, 2022).
The advantage of implementing a space launch facility in Hambanthota (or Trincomalee) is that eastwards launches are always away from populated landmasses and the trajectory will be over the vast Indian Ocean for thousands of miles. Hambanthota has the additional benefit of having another massive ocean to the south of the location, making it ideal for polar launches as well.
However, a factor to be considered is the maritime activity in the southern and eastern oceans of Sri Lanka. There are several international shipping routes over the Indian Ocean and also the area is frequented by fishermen from both Sri Lanka and its neighbors. Therefore, it is crucial to put in place safety measures such as implementing effective warning systems, declaring safety zones (or restricted zones) and upgrading coastguard and rescue operations. Most importantly it is essential to keep fishing communities and other maritime stakeholders up to date regarding launch schedules and trajectories and also build awareness.
When it comes to debris from launch vehicles, another important factor to be considered is ocean pollution and contamination due to harmful chemicals and substances. Although the occurrence of such incidents could be relatively rare, it is important to have a clear picture of the situation and have proper preventative and rescue plans in place. Table 1 shows some of the common hazardous chemicals and substances that are used in launch vehicles.
Historical records show that these incidents are rare. Data shows that most of the debris are from ‘controlled reentries’ where effective recovery processes can be planed ahead of time and the damage to populations and the environment can be minimized. A notable incident occurred in December 2020 when an Arianespace Vega C rocket launched from ESA’s launch facility in French Guiana, exploded shortly after liftoff. The launch vehicles and the payload it was carrying, two Earth-observation satellites, were destroyed and debris fell into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Africa (Howell, 2023).
Detailed and well-coordinated plans should be implemented to prevent and mitigate such occurrences. This entails meticulous planning and coordination among launch mission planners, warning system operators, commercial aviation and maritime authorities, Air Force and Navy personnel, meteorological departments, as well as rescue and recovery teams, alongside all other pertinent maritime stakeholders.
Common Space Launch Debris and Their Effects
Note. The most common hazardous chemicals and compounds that cause air and water pollution (Pultarova, 2021; Bennett, Hinshaw, & Barnes, 1992).
hen it comes to debris recovery and rescue operations in the Indian Ocean, one advantage Sri Lanka has is its Navy. During the past civil war, Sri Lankan government invested heavily on expanding the infrastructure and manpower of the Naval force. In the current era, now that the civil war has ended, the Navy primarily focuses on near-coastal activities. However, it remains well-equipped and trained for various maritime operations. Leveraging the Navy's capabilities as a service provider would prove advantageous for both the launch facility and the Sri Lankan government.
Environmental Challenges
Another important challenge is air pollution concerns. There are many ways a launch facility can produce pollutants harmful to the atmosphere and the ecosystem. Depending on the size of the launch vehicle, the type of propellants used and the combustion mechanism, the level of damage to the atmosphere can differ, however, the most common pollutants that associated with rocket launches include exhaust gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), soot and other particulate matter. Furthermore, factors such as sound pollution and excessive heat emissions are among the common considerations in the vicinity of a launch facility (Ryan, Marais, Balhatchet, & Eastham, 2022).
Air pollution due to exhaust gases and other pollutants can lead to many hazards including respiratory illnesses among human and animal populations, damage to sensitive ecosystems and crops, contributing to the greenhouse effect, damaging the ozone layer and causing acid rains.
Although implementing a new launch facility could become a contributor to increased environmental pollution (if operated frequently and with the use of larger launch vehicles), it is important to note that these issues are common to every launch facility around the world. There are many successful preventative and mitigation measures have been developed and, with the correct and responsible implementation, these measures can significantly lower the damage to the environment.
However, it is important to evaluate pollution concerns, their influence to the environment and possible preventative measures, specifically in the context of the Hambanthota and Trincomalee coastal areas. Several advantages and also some concerns associated with the proposed primary and secondary locations are discussed below.
Advantages of Hambanthota and Trincomalee Coastal Areas
The mountain ranges act as natural barriers to decrease monsoon wind’s speed as wind flows over the island and also create a dry, calm climate, especially in the Hambanthota area. Monsoon winds exhibit periodicity and predictability over several months each year, providing an advantage in launch window planning.
Concerns - Impact of Air, Sound and Thermal Pollution On Sensitive Ecosystems
Sri Lanka is known for its unique and diverse ecosystem. The island is a hotspot for biodiversity due to its varied climate, unique topography and rich soils. There are a number of endemic species that are only found in Sri Lanka. About 23% of the flowering plants and 16% of the mammals in Sri Lanka are endemic, meaning they are found exclusively on the island and nowhere else in the world. Some of the rainforests in Sri Lanka (ex: Sinharaja Forest Preserve) known to be one of the highest in terms of bio diversities in the world (Forest and Related Ecosystems, n.d.).
Air, sound and thermal pollution can have adverse effects on sensitive ecosystems. Vegetation, animal populations, bird populations and insect populations near a launch site can be impacted negatively due to toxic chemicals in the air and drinking water, excessive sound and vibration from launches and the excessive heat emissions. These hazardous conditions, depending on the severity and frequency, can have short and long term effects on ecosystems. Habitat disturbances, change or loss of habitats, behavioral changes among animals, diseases, population decline and even death can occur in ecosystems and their inhabitants (Ryan, Marais, Balhatchet, & Eastham, 2022).
There are several sensitive ecosystems in Hambanthota and Trincomalee coastal areas and it is important to identify potential adverse impacts on them from a proposed launch facility.
Sensitive Ecosystems Near Hambanthota Coast
Bundala National Park
Yala National Park
Lunugamwehera National Park
Kumana National Park
Udawalawa National Park
(Department of Wildlife Conservation, n.d.)
Another important forest area in the southern part of the island is the Sinharaja forest reserve which is also a highly sensitive ecosystem similar to the other national parks mentioned above. However, there are several mountain ranges and high grounds between these forest areas and Hambanthota, providing a natural barrier to incoming winds from the southern coastal areas. Therefore, the Sinharaja ecosystem is relatively safe from potential pollution occurring in the southern coast. Similar to Hambanthota, the coastal areas of Trincomalee also have several natural forest areas that are rich in biodiversity. Environmental impact on these sensitive ecosystems due to the construction of a launch facility should be studied in detail.
Sensitive Ecosystems near Trincomalee Coast
Somawathiya National Park
Trikonamadu Nature Preserve
Seruwawila Wildlife Sanctuary
(Department of Wildlife Conservation, n.d.)
While Hambanthota and Trincomalee coastal areas are the most suitable locations in the country for a prospective satellite launch facility due to several advantages factors, both coastlines also have the disadvantage of being in close proximity to important and sensitive ecosystems. With proper preventative and safety measures in place, the impact on the environment can be minimized or mitigated. Hence, conducting additional environmental studies and comprehensive risk assessments is crucial should the project advance.
Discussion
The Demand for Future Satellite Launch Facilities
The demand for additional satellite launch facilities is on the rise, driven by various factors that require an in-depth analysis of ongoing trends.
As the Earth's population steadily increases, so does the need for technological infrastructure to support it. Some of the important, growing technological needs of today’s society are directly related to the field of the satellite industry. A few such examples are communication, navigation, scientific research and Earth observation where the demand for more satellites and satellite constellations has grown significantly over the past decade. Especially in the communication sector, there is a very visible increase in the number of satellites being deployed per year. This is mainly due to the increasing demand for faster and more widespread global connectivity, broadband internet and other advanced communications needs. According to Euroconsult, a leading satellite industry analyst firm, the number of satellites launched globally has roughly increased by four times from ten years ago to today with over 50% of these launches being for communication purposes (Werner, 2022).
Another reason for the increase in the number of launches per year over the past years is the significant reduction in launch cost. As discussed above, due to the introduction of reusable launch vehicles, advancements in technology and material, the cost associated with satellite launch has greatly reduced in the recent years. For comparison, the following table compares the cost of launch per kilogram between the years 2010 and now. These numbers serve as a very crude approximation as the specific cost of a launch depends on multiple factors such as the particular launch vehicles, payload, the target orbit and the providers profit goals.
A comparison of cost of launch per kilogram between year 2010 and 2022
Orbit
Low Earth Orbit (LEO)
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)
Geostationary Orbit (GEO)
Note. Although LEO and MEO price ranges look identical, majority of MEO launch costs tend be in the higher end of the range (Urban, 2023).
Table 4 illustrates the dramatic drop in the cost of space launch from a decade ago to recent years. While the exact costs may differ slightly from these approximated values, the overall change is very significant. This is another major reason for the increased demand for satellite launches around the globe as the launch process is becoming more and more affordable to many users.
With the increasing demand for satellite based technology services and the decreasing cost of satellite launch, more and more countries are entering the satellite industry. It is important to note that many of these newcomers do not have their own launch facilities and must partner with established spacefaring countries such as the USA, Russia, China or India for launch services (Wood & Weigel, 2011). While there are many such countries in need of launch service partnerships, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Qatar and Singapore are some of the wealthy candidates worth noting. These countries are investing heavily on building their own satellites constellations, mainly for the communication sector which include high-speed internet and satellite TV services. Exploring launch service partnerships with these countries could yield substantial profits and warrants thorough investigation (Cornwell, 2024).
Is Sri Lanka Financially Capable of Becoming a Spacefaring Nation?
Sri Lanka, as a developing nation with relatively limited financial resources, requires a carefully strategized approach to determine the most suitable model for a launch facility. From a financial perspective, in addition to the financial strength, a country’s ability to invest in a new satellite launch facility depends on many factors such as the expected Return On Investment (ROI), long-term revenue generation opportunities, future expansion opportunities and financial risks. While a successfully functioning launch facility can generate a considerable revenue for the country, the initial investment and the risk associated with it need to be studied in-depth, and such a detailed financial analysis is beyond the scope of this work. Compared to many spacefaring countries such as the USA, Russia or China, Sri Lanka is at a significant disadvantage in terms of financial capability and technological infrastructure. Therefore, a direct comparison between these counterparts may not be useful to understand the prospects of establishing a satellite launch facility in Sri Lanka.
However, there are a few other countries around the globe operating successful space programs with limited financial power. A good example is Luxembourg, a small landlocked country in Western Europe with a fast booming space program. Established in September 2018, the Luxembourg Space Agency (LSA) is actively promoting the commercial space sector with the goal of boosting country’s economy through space related investments. Today LSA is overseeing many important space endeavors including asteroid mining initiatives, communication satellite operations and satellite building. SES, a leading satellite fleet operator is also based in Luxembourg making the country an important hub for space operations (Milestones, n.d.). Although there are many significant differences between Luxembourg and Sri Lanka, it is worth noting that both countries have closely equal economic strengths when the GDP (Gross Domestic Product) numbers are compared. According to statistics published by the World Bank for the fiscal year 2022, GDP of Luxembourg is USD 81.6 billion and the GDP of Sri Lanka is USD 74.4 billion (GDP (current US$), n.d.). As Sri Lanka investigates its potential to be an active partner in the space industry, there will be many lessons to learn from Luxembourg’s strategic approach.
Deciding The Most Suitable Launch Facility for Sri Lanka
Establishing a new launch facility is a large-scale, expensive and complex project. Especially for a country like Sri Lanka that is novice to the industry and with marginal financial capabilities, it is important to conduct a broad and in-depth study before undertaking such a project.
Due to the geopolitical sensitivity of the region, there will be limitations to the launch services that Sri Lanka can offer. Specifically, due to the geopolitical sensitivity of the region, launching satellites for military or reconnaissance purposes will not be an option for Sri Lanka, when it enters the launch industry for the first time. Therefore, it is best to focus on providing launch services for commercial, governmental (for non-military applications such as weather monitoring) and research sectors when establishing as a new service provider.
One of the important challenges that needs to be tackled when designing the new launch facility is to determine the most suitable launch vehicle. There are many independent factors and their combinations needed to be thoroughly analyzed when deciding on the launch vehicle. A few of the key points are the current and future demand for different types of satellites, the orbit types, the cost of launch vehicles and the cost of launch pad and the control station, although there are many other factors that need to be considered beyond the scope of this work. A comparison of some key points is discussed below.
While the price of the launch vehicle is easily the biggest cost factor in the project, there are many other major cost factors that are directly associated with the launch vehicle selection and these expenses tend to change in direct proportion to the cost of the launch vehicle. For example, bigger and more powerful launch vehicles (ex: SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy) are pricier than their smaller counterparts and, bigger launch vehicles require more expensive launch pads and other supporting infrastructure (Urban, 2023). On the other hand, the launch service provider Rocket lab’s successful business model which targets small satellite launches is a good example for understanding the feasibility of the small launch market (Borroz & Korber, 2023). Considering the limited financial strength and low tolerance for financial risks, it is advisable for Sri Lanka also to focus on small to medium lift launch vehicles as a first step.
Note. Launch cost to reach Sun-synchronous orbit at 500km altitude is compared among several small-lift launch vehicles. While there are significant differences between the lift capacity and cost, it is important to note that some of the seemingly low cost launch options such as AstraSpace Inc. are still in experimental stages and some are retired (Falcon 1). From New smallsat launches vs Falcon 1 by Everyday Astronaut, 2021. (https://everydayastronaut.com/small-sat-launcher-comparison/)
Few of the other important factors to be considered when deciding on the launch vehicle include the target orbit, payload size, and the type of the satellite. As discussed earlier, the small satellite market is predicted to grow rapidly in the near future. According to a leading space industry analysis firm Markets & Markets, the small satellite market size is estimated at USD 3.2 billion in 2023 and is projected to reach USD 7.0 billion by 2028, at a CAGR of 16.8 % from 2023 to 2028 (Small Satellite Market, 2023). It is important to note that the majority of small satellites are designed for LEO (Low Earth Orbit) operations, and LEO will be an ideal target for a newly established launch facility. As of the year 2022, the largest market by orbit class belonged to LEO with a market share of 47.76%. Also, it is important to note that LEO is the fastest-growing market by orbit class with a projected CAGR of 25% from the year 2023 to 2029 (Satellite Launch vehicle (SLV) Market Size, 2022).
Therefore, it is evident that a space facility catering to launching small commercial satellites into LEO will be the best option for Sri Lanka to enter the global space industry. With smaller payloads and a lower orbit to be reached, a more cost-effective small launch vehicle could be used as the initial step. This, in turn, helps lowering the construction and operational costs of the launch site and also reduces the financial risks associated with the facility.
Best Location for The Launch Site
As discussed, Sri Lanka presents many geographical advantages to becoming successful as a space launch port. The country’s close proximity to the equator, having a vast waterbody to the east, and its location in a low gravity region are some of the major benefits presented in this work. Two coastal cities, Hambanthota in the southeastern coast and Trincomalee in the eastern coast, were identified as the best possible locations to establish a prospective satellite launch facility. These locations were selected after carefully analyzing several factors, including the close proximity to the eastward ocean, low population density, and ease of access by road, air, and sea. Hambanthota has additional advantages due to its generally calm climate year-round and having an ocean to the south favoring polar orbit launches. Therefore, the coastal area in the vicinity of Hambanthota is proposed as the primary choice for the future facility, while Trincomalee was kept as an alternate option. It was also noted that there are several important ecosystems such as forest reserves and wildlife sanctuaries near both locations. Possible environmental impacts on these sensitive ecosystems need to be studied in detail.
Conclusions
Establishing a satellite launch facility in a country that is new to the space industry is a complex project. While a launch facility can be a significant revenue generator, there are certain risks that need careful consideration. For a country with a small economy like Sri Lanka, the economic benefits from such a facility are undoubtedly significant. However, financial and other risks can be considerable as well and should be understood in detailed.
One of the main concerns is whether there is a global or regional demand for new satellite launch facilities. This study finds that there is a significant global demand for more orbital satellites and this demand is predicted to grow steadily in the upcoming years. The market demand for communication satellites in low Earth orbit is expected to be the highest during the forecast period from 2023 to 2032 according to several analysis firms and this creates a rising demand for the small-lift launch vehicles sector. It is interesting to note that this upward trend is highest in the Asia-Pacific region, compared to the rest of the world (Small Satellite Market, 2023; Förster, 2023). Overall, it is safe to assume that this growing demand for commercial satellite launches presents Sri Lanka with an ideal opportunity to enter the launch industry.
This paper examined the unique geographic location of Sri Lanka and its advantage as a space port. The close proximity to the equator, having open waters to the east and south, relatively low gravitational attraction of the region, specific wind patterns, and climate of the region were discussed, and their respective benefits were examined in detail. While a quantitative analysis of these benefits is beyond the scope of this paper, such a study will be very useful to understand the expected savings due to these unique geographical advantages.
The coastal areas of the southern district of Hambanthota are suggested as the proposed location for the prospective launch facility. While Hambanthota (and Trincomalee, the second option) coasts offer several advantages such as having a low population, good logistical connectivity, and favorable climates, they also present several environmental challenges. Both coastlines are in close proximity to forest areas and wildlife sanctuaries, and the potential adverse environmental impact on these sensitive ecosystems is a concern. As the next step, these environmental impacts should be studied in detail, and preventative measures should be identified.
Regional geopolitics is another challenge identified by this study. India’s growing space and military presence in the region, economic and military competition between India and China in the Indian Ocean and India’s decade long tensions with Pakistan are some of the issues discussed here. However, Sri Lanka maintains positive and friendly relationships with all these countries, which is an advantage when negotiating such issues. An in-depth analysis of geopolitical concerns is recommended as the next step of this work.
As Sri Lanka moves ahead with establishing a launch site, another option to consider is the possibility of forming a multi-national collaboration for commercial and scientific satellite launches. Such a step might help mitigate some of the resistance and skepticism among regional spacefaring nations towards the proposed facility. It will also open doors to other south Asian countries to receive benefits from a regional launch facility, especially for landlocked countries such as Nepal and Bhutan. Additionally, a collaboration with other countries is a way to distribute the financial risk among stakeholders, reducing the burden on Sri Lanka.
It is the nature of large ventures, that they are associated with financial risks and other hurdles. However, detailed studies and strategic planning are the way to overcome challenges and get the best out of an investment. A satellite launch facility is not just a revenue generator that provides launch services. It can foster a range of high-tech industries such as propulsion systems, material sciences, aerospace engineering and satellite production within the country and create many high-skilled job opportunities. It attracts investors from such fields which can further stimulate the economic growth of the country. A launch facility will be a great opportunity for Sri Lanka’s aspiring future generations to engage in cutting-edge research and space explorations. Another lucrative future possibility would be to add space-tourism to the services offered. Already, Sri Lanka is a popular tropical hotspot and space tourism could make it even more attractive destination for global tourist. Finally, becoming a spacefaring nation would bring prestige to the country and its people, marking a historic milestone in Sri Lanka's journey toward technological advancement and global recognition.
References
Arthur C Clarke’s Legacy. (n.d.). Retrieved from Arthur C Clarke: http://arthurcclarke.org/site/legacy/
Baker, S., & Spirlet, T. (2023). The world's most powerful militaries in 2023, ranked. Retrieved from Business Insider: https://www.businessinsider.com/ranked-world-most-powerful-militaries-2023-firepower-us-china-russia-2023-5
Bennett, R., Hinshaw, J., & Barnes, M. (1992). The effects of chemical propulsion on the environment. Acta Astronautica.
Borroz, N., & Korber, S. (2023). To infinity and beyond: A teaching case on Rocket Lab and the emergence of New Zealand's space ecosystem. The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation.
Clark, S. (2023). SpaceX is stretching the lifetime of its reusable Falcon 9 boosters. Retrieved from Ars Technica: https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/07/spacex-launches-its-fleet-leading-rocket-booster-for-record-16th-time/
Climate in Hambantota. (n.d.). Retrieved from Weather and Climate: https://weather-and-climate.com/average-monthly-Rainfall-Temperature-Sunshine,Hambantota,Sri-Lanka
Cornwell, A. (2024). Abu Dhabi sovereign fund to invest space tech, AI this year. Retrieved from Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/technology/abu-dhabi-sovereign-fund-invest-space-tech-ai-this-year-2024-02-28/
Department of Wildlife Conservation. (n.d.). Retrieved from Ministry of Wildlife and Forest Resources Conservation Sri Lanka: https://www.mwfc.gov.lk/department-of-wildlife-conservation/
ESA, history of europe in space. (n.d.).ESA. (n.d), History of Europe in space. https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/History_of_Europe_in_space. (n.d.).
Forest and Related Ecosystems. (n.d.). Retrieved from Sri Lanka Biodiversity: https://lk.chm-cbd.net/ecosystems/forest-and-related-ecosystems
Förster, M. (2023). The New Frontier: Southeast Asia’s Emerging Space Role. Retrieved from ASEAN Briefing: https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/investing-asean-space-sector-emerging-opportunities-satellite-programs/
GDP (current US$). (n.d.). Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD
Giancoli, D. (2008). Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics. In D. Giancoli, Physics for Scientists & Engineers with Modern Physics (p. 245). Pearson.
Gravity Anomaly Maps and The Geoid. (2004). Retrieved from NASA Earth Observatory: https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/GRACE/page3.php
Henry, C. (2017). SpaceX demonstrates rocket reusability with SES-10 launch and booster landing. Retrieved from Space News: https://spacenews.com/spacex-demonstrates-rocket-reusability-with-ses-10-launch-and-booster-landing/
History of Europe in space. (n.d.). Retrieved from The European Space Agency: https://www.esa.int/About_Us/ESA_history/History_of_Europe_in_space
History of satellites – timeline. (n.d.). Retrieved from Science Learning Hub: https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/1905-history-of-satellites-timeline
Howell, E. (2023). Europe's Vega C rocket launch failure caused by nozzle flaw, investigators say. Retrieved from Space.com: https://www.space.com/vega-c-failure-rocket-nozzle-flaw-investigation-report
Jayasinghe, U. (2023). Sri Lanka's 2024 budget sets ambitious revenue, deficit targets. Retrieved from Reuters: https://www.reuters.com/markets/asia/sri-lankas-budget-will-strive-return-economy-growth-meet-imf-targets-2023-11-13/
Jochheim, U. (2023). Geopolitics in the Indo-Pacific: Major players' strategic perspectives. Retrieved from European Parliamentary Research Service: www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank
Joshi, R. (2022). 5 Major Ports of Sri Lanka. Retrieved from Marine Insight: https://www.marineinsight.com/know-more/5-major-ports-of-sri-lanka/
Khan, B. (2023). A LOOK AT PAKISTAN’S SONMIANI WEAPON TEST RANGE. Retrieved from Quwa - Defence News & Analysis Group: https://quwa.org/2019/12/03/a-look-at-pakistans-sonmiani-weapon-test-range/
Launch Services. (n.d.). Retrieved from Indian Space Research Organisation: https://www.isro.gov.in/launchservices.html
Loughran, J. (2024). Narendra Modi lays foundation stone on India’s first spaceport in over 50 years. Retrieved from Engineering and Technology: https://eandt.theiet.org/2024/02/29/narendra-modi-lays-foundation-stone-indias-first-spaceport-over-50-years
Maps of Sri Lanka. (n.d.). Retrieved from World Atlas: https://www.worldatlas.com/maps/sri-lanka
Markey, D., & Scobell, A. (2023). Three Things to Know About China-India Tensions. United State Institue of Peace.
McBride, J., & Berman, N. (2023). China’s Massive Belt and Road Initiative. Retrieved from Council on Foreign Relations: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/chinas-massive-belt-and-road-initiative
Member States and Observer Organizations. (n.d.). Retrieved from The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) : https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/copuos/members/evolution.html
Milestones. (n.d.). Retrieved from Luxembourg Space Agency: https://space-agency.public.lu/en/agency/timeline.html
Mishra, S. K. (2016). The Colonial Origins of Territorial Disputes in South Asia. The Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies, 5-23.
Monsoon. (n.d.). Retrieved from National Geographic: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/monsoon/
Nelson, J. (2024). The New Space Race: Private American Companies Compete to Land on the Moon. Retrieved from Medriva: https://medriva.com/breaking-news/the-new-space-race-private-american-companies-compete-to-land-on-the-moon/
Pal, D., & Ghosh, A. (2023). How the Indian Ocean Geoid Low Was Formed. Geophysical Research Letters.
Patschke, G. (2023). Key trends shaping the future of space technology. Retrieved from Aerospace Manufacturing and Design: https://www.aerospacemanufacturinganddesign.com/article/key-trends-shaping-the-future-of-space-technology/
Pereira, D. (2023). SpaceX Business Model. Retrieved from The Business Model Analyst: https://businessmodelanalyst.com/spacex-business-model/
Population and Housing. (2017). Retrieved from Department of Census and Statistics - Sri Lanka: http://map.statistics.gov.lk/
Pultarova, T. (2021). The environmental impact of rocket launches: The 'dirty' and the 'green'. Retrieved from Space.com: https://www.space.com/rocket-launches-environmental-impact
Raavana-1 1U Cube Satellite Project. (n.d.). Retrieved from ACCIMT - Arthur C Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies: https://www.accimt.ac.lk/?p=8266
Ryan, R. G., Marais, E. A., Balhatchet, C. J., & Eastham, S. D. (2022). Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate. Earth's Future.
Satellite Launch vehicle (SLV) Market Size. (2022). Retrieved from Global Market Insights: https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/satellite-launch-vehicle-slv-market
Satellite Launch Vehicle Market Size & Share Analysis. (n.d.). Retrieved from Mordor Intelligence: https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/global-satellite-launch-vehicle-market
Sellers, J. (2005). Understanding Space: An Introduction to Astronautics, 3rd Edition (Space Technology). In Understanding Space: An Introduction to Astronautics, 3rd Edition (Space Technology) (pp. 103-120). McGraw Hill.
Small Satellite Market. (2023). Retrieved from Markets and Markets: https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/small-satellite-market-150947396.html
Space Launch Service Market. (2023). Retrieved from Fortune Business Insight: https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/space-launch-services-market-101931
Space Launch Services Market . (2023). Retrieved from Fortune Business Insight: https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/space-launch-services-market-101931
Space Launch Services Market. (2023). Retrieved from Precedence Research: https://www.precedenceresearch.com/space-launch-services-market
Telstar 1. (n.d.). Retrieved from The National Aeronautics and Space Administration: https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1962-029A
The Space Race. (n.d.). Retrieved from National Air and Space Museum: https://airandspace.si.edu/explore/stories/space-race
Thompson, A. (2023). SpaceX sets a new reusability record. Retrieved from The Hill: https://thehill.com/homenews/space/4090715-spacex-sets-a-new-reusability-record/
Tingley, B. (2022). Whew! 23-ton Chinese rocket debris falls to Earth over Pacific Ocean. Retrieved from Space.com: https://www.space.com/china-long-march-5b-rocket-falls-into-pacific-ocean
Universities. (n.d.). Retrieved from University Grants Commision - Sri Lanka: https://www.ugc.ac.lk/index.php?option=com_university&view=list&Itemid=25&lang=en
Urban, R. (2023). How Much Does It Cost to Launch a Rocket? [By Type & Size]. Retrieved from Space Impulse: https://spaceimpulse.com/2023/08/16/how-much-does-it-cost-to-launch-a-rocket/
Werner, D. (2022). Surging demand for satellite data services, Euroconsult forecast. Retrieved from Space News: https://spacenews.com/euroconsult-forecast-wsbw-2022/
Wood, D., & Weigel, A. (2011). Building technological capability within satellite programs in developing countries. Acta Astronautica, 1110-1122.
Worldwide Space Agencies. (n.d.). Retrieved from The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA): https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/space-agencies.html
© Copyright. All rights reserved.
We need your consent to load the translations
We use a third-party service to translate the website content that may collect data about your activity. Please review the details in the privacy policy and accept the service to view the translations.